Culture
is a defining feature of a person's identity, contributing to how they see
themselves and the groups with which they identify. Culture may be broadly
defined as the sum total of ways of living built up by a group of human beings,
which is transmitted from one generation to another. Every community, cultural
group or ethnic group has its own values, beliefs and ways of living.
The
observable aspects of culture such as food, clothing, celebrations, religion
and language are only part of a person's cultural heritage. The shared values,
customs and histories characteristic of culture shape the way a person thinks,
behaves and views the world. A shared cultural heritage bonds the members of
the group together and creates a sense of belonging through community acceptance.
Language
is intrinsic to the expression of culture. As a means of communicating values,
beliefs and customs, it has an important social function and fosters feelings
of group identity and solidarity. It is the means by which culture and its
traditions and shared values may be conveyed and preserved.
Language
is fundamental to cultural identity. This is so for people everywhere. For
Bininj, their unique world is expressed in their language. For this reason, it
is important that people keep their own language alive.
Kakadu
National Park, Warradjan Aboriginal Cultural Centre, NT
Cultural and linguistic diversity is a feature of most nations today
as people from different groups live together as a consequence of
historical events and human migrations. Within multilingual societies, the
maintenance of the languages of the various ethnic and cultural groups is
critical for the preservation of cultural heritage and identity. The loss of
language means the loss of culture and identity. In many societies throughout
history, the suppression of the languages of minority groups has been used as a
deliberate policy in order to suppress those minority cultures. As a result a
large number of the world's languages have been lost with the processes of
colonisation and migration. [2]
As
languages disappear, cultures die. The world becomes inherently a less
interesting place, but we also sacrifice raw knowledge and the intellectual
achievements of millennia.
Australia's cultural and linguistic diversity
Australia
is one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse nations in the world.
This diversity has always been embedded in Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander societies and has been broadened over the last two hundred years with
the arrival of people from over one hundred and fifty distinct cultures from
around the world.
While
English is the dominant language, many people speak a language other than
English as their first language within their families and communities. Over two
hundred languages other than English are spoken in Australia today. The
acquisition of proficiency in Standard Australian English, together with the
maintenance of community languages is therefore a significant issue in
Australia.
Proficiency
in English is critical for successful participation in Australian society and
for exchanging information about the values and perspectives of different
cultures. Similarly, proficiency in first language skills is essential for
self-enrichment and expression of identity.
In
large parts of Australia, the loss of a great number of Aboriginal languages [3]
means that for many Aboriginal people, Aboriginal English is their first
language and is a particular marker of identity. Aboriginal English developed
as a means of communication for Aboriginal people between people of different
language groups and with non-Aboriginal people. Torres Strait Creole is
similarly an important marker of identity for Torres Strait Islander people and
is used as a common language among speakers of different Torres Strait
languages. Both Aboriginal English and Torres Strait Creole are spoken as a
first or second language by many Indigenous Australians.
The
maintenance of a community's first language is also a significant issue for
many people who belong to diverse ethnic communities whose members, or their ancestors, have migrated to
Australia. The use of community languages is important both for individual and
group identity and for communication across generations. In an increasingly
globalised world, linguistic skills strengthen international ties and foster cultural
exchange. Linguistic diversity makes Australia more competitive in trade and
strengthens its international standing.
Identity and community
I
have... come to the conclusion that my identity does not have to be static.
Sometimes, I feel Spanish and I like to identify with the Spanish culture while
at other times I choose to reinforce my German, Irish-Anglo background. In many
ways the two identities have become interwoven. A part of me is expressed
through speaking Spanish and singing Spanish songs which is not expressed
through speaking English or playing classical music... each language I speak
and each music tradition I engage in carries with it a different world of
meanings.
A
person's understanding of their own and others' cultural identity develops from
birth and is shaped by the values and attitudes prevalent at home and in the
surrounding community. This identity becomes more complex and fluid over time
as people develop allegiances to different groups within the broader society.
At the same time, cultures themselves are not static but develop and change as
the belief systems and ways of life of different groups adapt under other
cultural influences including mass media and popular culture to create new
identities. In a culturally diverse society like Australia, individuals may
have multiple identities through identification with several different
sub-cultures. These identities may include identity based on cultural heritage,
family or birthplace; religious or social identity; and identity as members of
Australian society.
The
realisation that there are many Australian identities reinforces the need for
mutual understanding for achieving a racism-free community. Reconciliation, which aims to encourage
co-operation and improve relations between Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Australians and the wider community, is critical in this process. The
understanding of how history has shaped our relationship with each other and
respect for each other's cultures are key components of the Reconciliation
process.
The
policy of multiculturalism is equally vital in achieving a cohesive Australian nation.
It recognises and values Australia's cultural and linguistic diversity
and accepts and respects the right of all Australians to express and share
their individual cultural heritage within an overriding commitment to
Australia.
The
mistrust and fear of difference which often stem from isolation from other
cultures can be overcome by fostering cultural understanding and by
highlighting the common interests that all Australians share. Working together,
Australians can achieve a more equal and fairer society that respects and
values its diversity.
[2] It has been estimated that approximately 10,000 spoken
languages have existed. Today, only about 6,000 languages are still spoken and
many of these are not being taught to children. More than half of these languages
are unlikely to survive the next century. See W. Davis, 'Vanishing Cultures',
in National Geographic, vol. 196, no. 2, pp. 62-89, 1999.
[3] See A. Schmidt, The Loss of Australia's Indigenous
Language Heritage, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra, 1990. Today,
approximately ninety Aboriginal languages are spoken but only twenty are in a
relatively healthy state, that is, they are being transmitted to and used by
children.
[3] See A. Schmidt, The Loss of Australia's Indigenous
Language Heritage, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra, 1990. Today,
approximately ninety Aboriginal languages are spoken but only twenty are in a
relatively healthy state, that is, they are being transmitted to and used by
children.
Said
highly admired Joseph Conrad – a star novelist of the late Victorian period for
his superb criticism of Imperialism, especially in the Heart of Darkness which
is still highly relevant to the situation across the world.
Said’s
message is that Imperialism is not about a moment in history, it is about a
continuing interdependent discourse between subject peoples and the dominant
empire. Said’s view of the empire and colonialism is best expressed through
Fanny and Sir Thomas from Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park which is the story of
Fanny’s being taken into Sir Thomas’s life at Mansfield Park where she
eventually adjusts into the role of mistress of “estate”. Fanny was poor. Her
parents are not capable managers of wealth. These skills she acquires
when she goes to Mansfield Park to live at 10. Said’s comment on Jane
Austen’s writings highlight the extent to which he sees in her the reflection
of empire.
Adam
Smith (1723-90) was the father of political economy which Ruskin and his ilk
were to attack in the Victorian age. His Wealth of Nations (1776)
enjoyed a long and undisputed reign as the Bible of political economists. His
style is precise and unadorned to the extent of being altogether sapless:
The
first half of the eighteenth century saw the furious raging of the Deistic
controversy. The Deists including Charles Blqunt, John Tolant, Matthew Tindall,
Anthony Collins and the Earl of Shaftesbury believed in what they called
"Natural Religion," that is, belief in God without corresponding
belief in Christianity, or, as a matter of fact, any religion. Swift was one of
those who controverted the Deistic heresy.
The
rise of Methodism was another theological feature of the century. The two
Wesley brothers-John and Charles-were the initiators of the new move towards
importing the old enthusiasm, simplicity and sincerity into the religion of the
day. John Wesley's prose is characterised by directness, simplicity, and a
rude, compelling force.
Dr.
Johnson (1709-84):
As
a prose writer Dr. Johnson is particularly known for his Dictionary, his
periodical papers, his philosophical tale Rasselas, and his critical
work Lives of the Poets. He was the cham of the realm of letters in his
age and an accepted arbiter of taste. As a critic he made many egregious
errors, but his infectious sanity cannot be ignored. Asa prose stylist he was a
purist. However, his style though vigorous and direct is somewhat heavy-handed,
and as such is sometimes derisively called "Johnsonese", which Chambers's
Dictionary defines as "Johnsonian style, idiom, diction or an
imitation of it—ponderous English, full of antitheses, balanced triads, and
words of classical origin." Goldsmith said jokingly about Johnson's style
that it may fit the mouths of whales but it certainly does not fit the mouths
of little fish.
Biographers
and Letter Writers:
The
eighteenth century produced a number of biographers, autobiographers, and
writers of semi-public letters. James Boswell (1740-95), the biographer of his
idol Dr. Johnson, has the pride of place among them. His work is as massive as
the great Johnson himself! Life of Johnson is a unique work of its kind.
BoswelFs devotion to Dr. Johnson became the cause of his own fame. Among the
autobiographers may be mentioned Gibbon, Lord Hervey, and John, Wesley.
Lady
Mary Wortley Montagu, Cowper, Chesterfield, Gilbert White, Gray, and Horace
Waipole were some of the famous letter writers of the eighteenth century.
Periodical
Papers and Oliver Goldsmith (1730-74):
After
the Spectator there was a remarkable proliferation of periodical
literature in England. To name all the periodical papers which appeared in the
eighteenth century will be an uphill task as their number is legion. Most of
them continued the traditions set by Addison and Steele. The name of Oliver
Goldsmith is associated with numerous periodical papers. His cosmopolitan
attitude, tolerance, delicacy, and sentiment are his hallmarks as an essayist.
He expresses himself in a chaste and elegant style free from artificial
devices.
Historians:
The
eighteenth century saw the establishment of historiography as a respectable and
highly developed branch of learned activity. Edward Gibbon (1737-94)-writer of
the monumental The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire-was the greatest
of the historiographers of the age. His attitude is entirely rational and anti-mystical.
His style is dignified and somewhat ponderous, but he can effectively combine
harmony and majesty with logic and precision.
Edmund
Burke
(1729-97):
Burke
was the greatest orator of the age. He dealt with the pressing political
problems facing the British Empire. His works concerning Indian and American
affairs and the French Revolution are couched in brilliant and rhetorical prose
which cannot but impress the most indifferent reader or listener. He was an
antitheorist who recommended action in keeping with the spirit and complexion
of the times
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